Summarise Finnis arguments in Natural Law and Natural Rights - Free Essay Example

Brief summary of Finnisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s argument Finnis claims that a system of authoritative stipulations is required to co-ordinate the common good.[1] The first and most fundamental principle of practical reasonableness is that authority in a community is to be exercised by those who can in fact effectively settle co-ordination problems for that community.[2] In any large and complex community, there will be a need for rules providing for the cooperation and coordination of individuals for the community to act as a community, so that its members survive and flourish, and have a reasonable chance at realising the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"basic goodsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ of humans. To treat something as authoritative is to treat it as an à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"exclusionary reasonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ for action.[3] This means acting accordingly to the stipulations of the person or institution for the reasons that he/she/it has so stipulated, regardless of the existence of at least some other reasons to (or not to) act in that way. To seek out the source of authority is to recognise the notion that all members of a community are entitled to concern and respect.Along these lines Cardinal Bellarmine formulated his transmission theory which states that natural reasonableness requires that there be government authority, but it at the same time doesnt identify any particular person or class as the bearer of authority.Therefore, natural reasonableness requires that everybody (the whole community) be the bearer of authority (who then transmits its authority to representatives).[4] Finnis argues that this conclusion is implausible because we need authority to substitute for unanimity in determining the solution to co-ordination problems that involve everyone in the community.He further argues that this theory either means that there is no authority in the community or it tells us the location of authority in some communities. Finnis concludes that there is a need for authority in order to achieve the common good. In Finnisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view the origin of authority is through the principles of practical reasonableness and the basic values of common good, generating practical conclusions from the fact of ability to co-ordinate action for the common good.[5] Rationale behind the conclusion The need for authority in a community where people are energetic and inventive in pursuit of their own or of common goods is apparent. The fact that a person or body has authority over others in a community has normative consequences for practical reasonableness; it affects the responsibilities of both rulers and ruled, by creating certain exclusionary reasons for action. These normative consequences derive from the normative principle that authority is good (because it is required for the realization of the common good) when that principle is taken in conjunction with the fact that a particular person, body or configuration of persons do what authority is to do (i.e. secure and advance the common good).[6] People have different motives and reasons for complying with authoritative stipulations (e.g. fear or force, respect for age or wisdom, belief in divine designation etc.) but for an understanding of authoritativeness of rulers, as a concern of practical reasonableness, it is the sheer fact of effectiveness that is presumptively decisive. Finnis denies the assumption that present authority must rest on some prior authority (of custom; or of the community over itself, granted away to the ruler by transmission or alienation or of individuals over themselves, granted away by promise or implied contract or consent).[7] Rules are unlikely to arise through custom; rather, they are typically imposed by an authority who manages to get bulk of the population to take its say-so as law. In Finnisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s view, consent, transmission, contract, custom à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" none of t hese is needed to constitute the state of affairs which justifies authority. What is needed to justify authority is that the command or orders of a person or body is complied with and acted upon by the community, and not of any other rival person or body, even though the preferences of individuals are different regarding the relevant problems. Individual motivations for agreeing to the judgment will vary, and those who aspire to authority will ensure that those who are not will be supplied with some exterior motive to concur (i.e. through fear or favour).[8] Also, those who are in authority will lay down directions to ensure the location of authority in future by authoritative rules, thus, eliminating the need of the process of arriving at unanimity to determine authority. The fact that everyone will abide by somebodyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s say-so is the necessary and defeasibly sufficient prerequisite for believing that that person has authority in the community. There are two rider s of this principle. Firstly, Practical reasonableness requires that faced with a purported rulerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s say-so, the members of the community normally should obey him if the purported ruler is designated as the lawful bearer of authority by the constitutional rules authoritative for that time, place, field, and function. Secondly, a mans stipulations have authority when a practically reasonable subject, with the common good in view, would think he à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"oughtà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ to consent to them.[9] Finnis suggests that most lawyers and political philosophers would consider the two riders as fundamental principles of determining authority. In his view, this is due to fact that most realms such as the Romans came into being through usurping authority of another. He further refers to the idea proposed by Sir John Fortescue that even if a government is formulated by bad people its origins stem from natural law. However, Finnis prefers the principles of practical reasonableness and the basic values of common good, over natural law. The place of the argument within the larger thesis Finnisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ claim about the existence of a presumptive moral obligation to obey the law is founded upon a certain view of human good and of the type of social order that must exist for the achievement of this good. He develops his claim as follows. He argues that there exist certain à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"goodsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, such as knowledge, play and friendship, which have an intrinsic and self-evident value for every human being. Human flourishing consists in the realization of these goods and society must be ordered in such a way that this flourishing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"the common goodà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" be achieved.[10] à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢Common goodà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ is a set of conditions which enables the members of the community to attain for themselves reasonable objectives, or to realize reasonably for th emselves the values, for the sake of which they have reason to collaborate with each other in a community.[11] à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Practical reasonablenessà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ or reasoning about how to achieve the common good will reveal a wide range of commitments, orientations and projects to adopt this end. Many of these commitments and projects will be mutually incommensurable and no one of them will be inherently superior to the other. In order that anything be done, a selection has to be made from this range of alternative reasonable schemes for the community to adopt. Finnis calls these questions about which schemes, procedures and priorities to select à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"co-ordination problemsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[12] It is true that the more intelligence and skill of a groupà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s members, and the greater their commitment to achieving common good, the more authority and regulations may be required. This is so because the intelligent members will find many new and better w ays to achieve the aim which multiply the problems of co-ordination by giving the group more possible orientations and projects to choose from. Therefore, these co-ordination problems need a solution in order to achieve the common good. According to Finnis, co-ordination problems can only be solved in one of the two ways à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" by unanimity or authority.[13] He rejects unanimity for being impractical. Thus solutions to co-ordination problems can be found only through authoritative selections from amongst competing schemes for the common good.[14] There has to be some arrangement whereby people treat selections of solutions to these problems through this arrangement as binding or obligatory upon them. The law is one form of authoritative governance and dispute resolution. The law makes available a system of promulgated rules for everyone in the community to follow. It creates frameworks within which people can organise their transactions and so on.[15] Hence, Finnis argues that there is a generic and moral obligation to obey the law. Further in his book, Finnis argues that morality and law are the result of practical reasonableness and laws that donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t aim the common good and donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t meet practical reasonableness requirements should be rejected. However, not all laws that lack moral justifications should be disobeyed because this damages the rule of law. Strengths and weaknesses of the argument with reference to other academics Finnis says that we need authority to achieve the common good, which mean that people who have authority lay down the rules or laws that are to be followed; hence, we should follow the law in order to achieve the common good. The legal order à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"shapes, supports and furthers patterns of co-ordination.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢[16] Thus the law, by solving co-ordination problems, enables us to achieve the common good. The legal order establishes constitutional governance. Under the rule of law, authoritative solutions to coordination problems are established, modified and applied in the form of and by reference to pre-determined and promulgated rules. The exercise of authority in this manner has built into it an element of systematic fairness. When authority is brought to bear upon a person or to solve a given practical problem through the rule of law, systemically speaking its solutions apply not by reference to any partisan or arbitrary preference but by reference to given rules.[17] Finnis seems to assume that it is possible to identify the obvious areas where cooperation and coordination of individuals is required, and the duty of authority is to select from various regimes of rules to fill that need. But in this consideration Leslie Green says that common knowledge of our circumstances cannot simply be assumed.[18] One of the hardest tasks in law and politics is to get people to understand the need for cooperation, especially when it is very comple x or involves people unlike or remote from themselves. Two sorts of errors are common. Firstly, there may be a need for cooperation that is not adequately felt, for instance, where there is a social problem that needs solution but because of ignorance, self-deception or wilful blindness of people; they do not see a task calling for a solution. Secondly, there may be deeply felt coordinative à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"needsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ that are in fact illusory.[19] Joseph Raz objects to one of Finnisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s claim that a system of authoritative stipulations is required to co-ordinate the common good. Raz argues that there are other equally serviceable methods for the achievement of co-ordination. For instance, the manipulation by the State of the social and economic environment to provide incentives for behaviour that is desirable from the viewpoint of oc-ordination and disincentives against undesirable conduct. Raz calls this à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"government without authorityà ¢Ã ¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢.[20] Another method of government without authority is the use of the coercive powers of the State to provide the morally unscrupulous with prudential reasons to act for the common good. Raz also denies the claim that there is a general moral obligation to obey the law regardless of its content.[21] His position is that the question of whether or not a person is under an obligation to obey depends on his/her situation and the content of the law. Hence we cannot speak of a universal and independent moral duty to follow the law. Finnisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s claim that authority is the only possible solution in order to tackle coordination problems (since unanimity, in his view, is impractical) is also criticised. Many social coordination problems (including extremely complex ones) are solved by convention, rather than the intervention of authority. Languages, for example, are complex sets of conventions that evolve over time in response to the need for society wide st andards of communication.[22] Hence, it is arguable that social coordination problems may be solved by convention in the absence of a centralised legal authority. This would result in something very similar to (if not completely) unanimity. Conclusion To conclude, Finnisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s argument about the need for authority has logical basis. But a person or institution should not have absolute authority in determining the rules of the community; rather, there should be a system whereby laws are created by a general consensus of the community. [1] S Aiyar, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Problems of Lawà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Authority: John Finnis and Joseph Raz on Legal Obligtionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Jul., 2000), p. 482. [2] J Finnis, Natural Law and Natural Rights (2 ed., Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2011), p. 246. [3] Ibid, p. 234. [4] Ibid, p. 248. [5] Ibid, p. 252 [6] Ibid, p. 246. [7] Ibid, p. 247. [8] Ibid, p. 249. [9] Ibid, pp. 250-251. [10] Aiyar, n(1), p. 466. [11] Finnis, n(2), p. 155. [12] Ibid, p. 231-232. [13] Ibid, p. 232. [14] Aiyar, n(1), p. 467. [15] Ibid, p. 468. [16] Ibid. [17] Ibid, p. 469. [18] L Green, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Duty to Governà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2007) 13 Legal Theory p. 177. [19] Ibid. [20] Aiyah, n(2), p. 482. [21] Ibid, p. 471. [22] J Crowe, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Five Questions for John Finnisà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (2011) Pandoras Box, Vol. 18, p. 16.

Paper on Bronfenbrenners Theory (on Journal Article) - Free Essay Example

The Bronfenbrenner’s Theory is defined as describing the nested social and cultural contexts that shape development. Every person develops within a mircosystem, inside a mesosystem, embedded in a exosystem, all of which are part of the macrosystem of the culture (according to the textbook). I found a journal article in Journal of Instructional Psychology explaining the Ecological Model and the importance of teachers to understand the different relationships that impact development. The journal article describes the Bronfenbrenner’s model and how it works in a school. The Mircosystem is the innermost level and refers to the immediate interactions and influences of a person’s surroundings. In the classroom it means that mentors, administrators, and peers play active role in both interaction and influence of a child. It also includes family which is another main source of relationship in the mircosystem. Children can pick up behaviors from these sources but can also distribute their own behavior onto others. The relationships are bidirectional and reciprocal. The Mesosystem is all interactions and influences within the mircosystem. It is support within a larger environment. An example of this would be teacher meetings with parents which could influence the parents and then the parents could influence the child. The Exosystem is the social settings that do not involve the candidate (child) but affect their experiences in immediate settings either formal or informal in a social network. The article pointed out how work can be significance in affecting one’s personal relationship with family. A example could be a parent who works long hours may have less time to be involved in their child’s education. It can come from other factors such as teacher/administration relationships, school board, community resources for health, employment, recreation, or religion. The Macrosystem is the outermost level of the mircosystem and refers to the values, laws, and customs of a particular cultural. It is the larger society. The priority that the Macrosytem gives will affect the support given. The article states that Bronfenbrenner emphasized that change at the Marcosystem is important because it affects all other environmental levels, revising established values and programs in ways more favorable to development and the well being of the candidate. The article said interaction at any level of the Mircosystem can enhance development. The article was similar to what we learned in the textbook reading. It explained the stages in the same way but put more emphasis from a educational standpoint. I learned that at any interaction at any level can enhance development and the Macrosystem affects all other environmental levels. I agree with the article that each environmental level plays role and the interaction is needed in order to develop. I feel Brofenbrenner’s model is correct on how much social context and influences plays part in how we develop. Article info: AUTHOR:Laura D. Tissington TITLE:A Bronfenbrenner Ecological Perspective on the Transition to Teaching for Alternative Certification SOURCE:Journal of Instructional Psychology 35 no1 106-10 Mr 2008 https://vnweb. hwwilsonweb. com. ezproxy. roanestate. edu/hww/results/external_link_maincontentframe. jhtml? _DARGS=/hww/results/results_common. jhtml. 43

Summary Torts - 1599 Words

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Physical Development Of The Physical Brain And Body

Hereditary and environmental aspects are interconnected in the developmental of the physical brain and body (Berk Meyers 2016, p.171). Physical development in early childhood is; awareness of space, body and movement (Rogers Wright 2015, p. 24), development of motor capabilities and physical growth (Berk Meyers 2016, p. 5). From birth to two years, children are experiencing physical change; size and weight, brain development and refinement of motor skills (Berk Meyers 2016, p. 5). The environment, social and genetic aspects all have an influence on the physical development of children (Tatiana et al. 2017, p. 1). Physical development is motor development through stage-based milestones, where the progression of physical skills and†¦show more content†¦As the size of the head is much greater than the rest of the body, the brain developments in a very quick pace (Berk Meyers 2016, p. 161). A majority of brain growth occurs rapidly in the early years of an infant’s life and is a crucial period in brain development (Fallik 2016, p. 7). During the first two years, children are forming neurons that store and communicate information and synapses (Berk Meyers 2016, p.162). Nature refers to inborn factors influencing physical development stated in Estourgie-van Burk 2006 (cited in Berk Meyers 2016, p. 171). Genes are in chromosomes that contain a genetic code, which makes humans who we are (Berk Meyers 2016, p.51). Chromosomal abnormalities also influence physical growth, such as children with Down syndrome have slower motor abilities (Berk Meyers 2016, p. 59) therefore having a significant impact on physical development. From birth, almost all children can learn to crawl, walk and grasp items (Berk Meyers 2016, fig. 5.2). 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Analysis Of The Book Scott - 1525 Words

Her body is stiff as she stares at her brother, running down towards the hallway aiming for her as his eyes glow red. Scott! She screams, trying to snap him out. She continues to scream as he runs towards her. His claws extends as his body grew taller and monstrous. His feet pounding against the school s hallway echoes throughout the building. She pulls out a bow and arrow, aiming it at her brother. She takes a deep breath in, but before she knows it, her body is being shredded by claws with her blood oozing onto the floor. Scott! Scott jerks his body, his eyes glance around to realize that he is not laying in his comfortable bed, with his legs tangled with the cotton sheets. He glances at the wall to see that he is holding his†¦show more content†¦Sorry, Scott mumbles, helping his sister of the floor. She walks into Scott s bathroom in a fluster. After several seconds of her staring at herself in the mirror she lets out a low growl. Nothing like my brother leaving bruises on my neck. What am I supposed to tell people at school? Oh someone tried to strangle me with a wire or how about my brother is a werewolf and I just tried waking him up, but instead you tried suffocating me. Which one sounds better? Mae sasses at her older brother. Mae never had a filter since the day she learned how to speak. From picking up sailor language and being poor at keeping secrets, a filter was never consider. The only person that finds that hilarious is Stiles. Scott stares at her neck to see his hand prints red and swollen around her neck. He knows for sure they ll turn into bruises and Mom would be curious, especially their Dad since he is also back into the house. Can t you just put makeup on it? He questions. Can you stop yourself on a full moon? She mocks him, rolling her eyes. As Mae opens up the door to leave her brother, she runs into Isaac. Isaac gives her a puzzled look and points to her neck. Since when did Mae have a boyfriend and I never knew a small girl could be into that stuff. Isaac questions. Mae s heartbeat rises at the question and she clears her throat. Since when were you dating Allison? Mae changes the conversation and directs it at Isaac, crossing her

A Tell Tale Heart By Edgar Allan Poe - 1156 Words

In Class we have focused on many short stories, while analyzing each story we used the mental disorder sheet to sum up what disorder the characters from each story could possibly be suffering from. We can come to the conclusion that all of the stories we read in class contain some level of madness. For example in the short stories â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† by Charlotte Perkins Gilman â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart† by Edgar Allan Poe, both of the main character in these stories believe that they are perfectly wise, but their out of control behaviors proves that they’re mentally ill or to be more specific insane. In the short story â€Å"A tell-tale heart† the unknown narrator is telling us a story about his neighbor who is an old man but his of a vulture: blue pale eye is what frightens him the most. Every night the narrator would creep over to the old mans house and watch him sleep. Yet throughout the day he would pretend as if nothing happened, he would act as if everything was â€Å"normal†. For someone who claims that are sane wouldn’t do such act. Same thing goes along for the unknown narrator in the short story â€Å"The Yellow wallpaper†. The narrator was a woman that went on a vacation with her husband that rented this huge mansion for them to stay. This one specific room that she is left in, the wallpaper â€Å"is ripped, soiled, has an â€Å"unclean yellow and the formless pattern. After staring at that wall for several hours she started to see a ghostly sub-pattern behind the main pattern. YetShow MoreRelatedThe Tell Tale Heart By Edgar Allan Poe1161 Words   |  5 PagesOut of a vast quantity of these English historians, one stood out to me, his name is Edgar Allan Poe. Poe’s writing had its own unique gothic and horror style. The story, The Tell-Tale Heart is one of his very popular pieces of literature, it not only tells a story, but uses Poe’s unique style of writing to silently incorporate different genres, themes, and symbolism to create a sub-story within the text itself. Poe was born in Boston Massachusetts on January 19, 1809. At the young age of just 2 yearsRead MoreThe Tell Tale Heart By Edgar Allan Poe1569 Words   |  7 PagesIn the short story â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart,† author Edgar Allan Poe employs several literary devices such as symbolism, allegory, and imagery. These devices enable us to see and better comprehend the story’s events through the eyes of the narrator. The narrator explains that he is extremely nervous but clarifies that he is not insane; he even goes so far as to share an event from his past to prove that he is not crazy. He believes that he loves the old man and has nothing against him except his horribleRead MoreThe Tell Tale Heart By Edgar Allan Poe Essay1477 Words   |  6 Pagesyourself and others that you weren’t in the wrong for doing something bad? Well, the narrator in the story The Tell-Tale Heart does. Edgar Allan Poe is known to write stories that are of Dark Romanticism. Dark romanticism is a literary genre that showcases gothic stories that portray torture, insanity, murder, and revenge. The story â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart† is no different. Edgar Allan Poe does a great job with making the readers wonder throughout this short story. This allegory makes reader’s questionsRead MoreThe Tell Tale Heart By Edgar Allan Poe1502 Words   |  7 PagesThe author Edgar Allan Poe created a beautiful writing piece called â€Å"Tell Tale Heart†, which included literal elements such as mood, tone, and point of view. The story included a tremulous mood for the reader to be able to feel the excitement of the story. According to the text â€Å"Tell Tale Heart†, it states â€Å"And now at the dead hour of the night, amid the dreadful silence of that old house, so strange a noise as this excited me to uncontrollable terror.† This illustrates that the details of the storyRead MoreThe Tell Tale Heart By Edgar Allan Poe986 Words   |  4 Pagesbade the gentlemen welcome. The shriek, I said, was my own in a dream.† The Tell Tale Heart is one of Edger Allan Poe’s most famous and creepiest stories. The premise of this gothic short story is that a man’s own insanity gives him away as a murderer. By using the narrators own thoughts as the story Poe displays the mental instability and the unique way of creating a gothic fiction. While other stories written by Poe reflect this same gothic structure and questionable sanity, this story has aRead MoreThe Tell Tale Heart By Edgar Allan Poe1133 Words   |  5 Pages Written in 1843, The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe incorporates nearly all of the gothic elements. While this piece of art may not contain all of the gothic elements, it is the epitome of a gothic short story. In The Tell-Tale Heart, the setting seems to be inside an old house, which strengthens the atmosphere of mystery and suspense. The madness and overall insanity of the narrator illustrates the sense of high, overwrought emotion. The presence of creaking hinges and the darkness representRead MoreThe Tell Tale Heart By Edgar Allan Poe1644 Words   |  7 Pages Edgar Allan Poe was a prominent American writer whose writing reflected his tragic life. He began to sell short stories for profit after being forced to leave United States Military Academy for lack of financial support. Over the next decade, Poe published some of his best-known works, including The Fall of the House of Usher (1839), The Raven (1845), and The Cask of Amontillado (1846). It is in these stories that Po e established his unique dark writing style that often have the recurring themeRead MoreThe Tell Tale Heart By Edgar Allan Poe1030 Words   |  5 PagesA Guilty- Mad Heart â€Å"Burduck then goes on to ponder how Poe used cultural anxieties and psychological panic to advantage.† (Grim Phantasms, G.A. Cevasco). In The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe, a nameless man narrates the story of how he murdered an elderly man because of his eyes. In his short story The Tell-Tale Heart, Poe shows the themes of guilt and the descent into madness through the narrator, in this gothic horror story. Edgar Allan Poe wrote many gothic tales throughout his lifeRead MoreThe Tell Tale Heart By Edgar Allan Poe879 Words   |  4 PagesIn between guilt, paranoia and obsession The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe uses several literary elements to support the themes of the story. The story is based on a gruesome murder of an old man. The author uses madness, obsession and guilt as themes to prove how the narrator is truly twisted and insane. Madness is the first theme of the story; in the beginning the narrator tries to convince the audience he is not mad (insane). â€Å"TRUE!... nervous very, very nervous I had been and am; but whyRead MoreThe Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe1136 Words   |  5 Pagesmotivated by the hatred of the eye in this story. The story gives characteristics that fit the profile of a murderer such as the opening sentence, â€Å"TRUE! - Nervous - very, very dreadfully nervous I had been and am; but why will you say that I am mad?† (POE). The narrator believes he is not mad, and thinks that this nervousness is simply caused by being hypersensitive proving his sanity. I felt as though throughout the story, the narrator is trying to convince the reader that he is perfectly sane and not

Security and Privacy Issues of VOIP and Skype

Question: Describe about the Security and Privacy Issues of VOIP and Skype. Answer: Introduction Voice over Internet Protocol commonly known as VOIP is a collection of methods and technologies to exchange voice and multimedia over the network which is the Internet. It allows communication to take place in the form of various services such as fax, SMS, video conferencing and many others (Vaishnav, 2016). Skype is a popular application that makes use of VOIP and has been developed by Microsoft. Skype allows instant messaging, file sharing, audio and video conferencing and a lot more and is widely used by the home and business users to connect with each other irrespective of their geographical locations. There are a number of security and privacy issues that are present in case of Skype and VOIP applications. Literature Review VOIP, Skype and the other applications and services that make use of VOIP make use of Internet Protocol for their activities. For the communications to take place over VOIP there is no dedicated telephone line or system necessary and the same brings down the cost that is associated with the services. The voice and data transfer capacity that comes with VOIP based applications is also massive. Ease of access, non-stop availability and lower costs are some of the features that come handy with Skype and other VOIP applications. However, with numerous advantages and benefits, there are a few risk areas that are also present with these applications. There are increased scenarios of data collision and congestions along with exposure to multiple security risks which may prove to be dangerous for the data and information being exchanged (Fontanini, 2016). Research Questions Following are the research questions that have been addressed and answered with the aid of the analysis and research done on the topic. What is the meaning of VOIP and Skype and what are the services that are provided by each? What are the confidentiality attacks that have an adverse impact on the security and privacy of the information exchanged over VOIP and Skype? What are the integrity attacks that have an adverse impact on the security and privacy of the information exchanged over VOIP and Skype? What are the availability attacks that have an adverse impact on the security and privacy of the information exchanged over VOIP and Skype? What are the measures that can be executed and installed to keep the security and privacy of the information unaltered at all times? Security and Privacy Issues There are three properties of information that must be kept safe and secure at all times and these three properties are confidentiality, integrity and availability. There are attacks that are executed that hamper these properties of data and information which in turn results in compromise on the security and privacy of the same. Confidentiality Threats Eavesdropping of phone conversation Skype and other VOIP applications work on the nodes that are present in this category of communication medium. Due to the presence of a huge number of nodes, an attacker gains access to any one of them and gets a chance to eavesdrop in the conversation or exchange taking place (Xin, 2016). Call Pattern Tracking There is often a pattern associated with the calls that take place over Skype or VOIP services in terms of time, frequency, participants and other factors. These patterns are studied by the attackers and valuable information in retrieved from the same. Data Mining Attacks Attackers acquire the phone numbers or credentials through intercepted message and then execute attacks such as spam calls, fraud messages and likewise (Park, 2016). Reconstruction Attacks A piece of information is acquired by the attacker through unauthorized measures and the same is reconstructed to give it a misleading shape. Integrity Attacks Integrity Attacks Message Alteration The messages that are exchanged over Skype or VOIP are often altered to provide them a different shape and the activity is done in an unauthorized manner. There are a number of entities that are involved in a particular call and these entities are added, deleted or modified by the attacker without the permission to do the same (Obidinnu and Ibor, 2016). Media Alteration The other form of the integrity attack is the alteration of the media. The media being exchanged over the VOIP channels is degraded, upgraded or modified without the required permissions to perform the same. Quality of the media is also hampered in this form of integrity attack (Lazzez, 2016). Availability Attacks Call Flooding The attacker introduces a lot of unwanted traffic on the communication channel which results in breaking down of the services (Sonkar, 2016). Media Session Hijacking Hijacking of the media sessions is often done in which there are unauthorized re-routing and alterations involved. These activities hamper the availability of the services. Server Impersonating The attacker in this form of the attack impersonates as the media server and acquires the trust of the clients. The request and response cycle that is followed by this activity results in disruptions in the availability of the information and services. QoS Abuse Bandwidth of the connections is often exhausted in these attacks and the same cause jitters and slippages which are considered to be a negative point as far as the quality of a particular service is concerned (Shaidani, 2016). Summary of Discussions Review 1 A blended technique has been received in the exploration by gathering the quantitative and also subjective strategy. Various elements have been utilized to ask about the data that is important to actualize the VOIP and Skype procedures in the association. The way of assaults can likewise be resolved with the assistance of gathering the data that is obtained from the different substances. Review 2 VOIP has picked up ubiquity among the clients in the previous couple of years and a great deal of work has been accomplished for the advancement of the administrations that are made accessible by the same. Likewise, there are various dangers that are additionally created by the pernicious elements to hamper the working of the same. There are assaults that are propelled in the expression of VOIP taking a gander at the enormous trade that happens over the medium. The achievement of these assaults permits the aggressors to get hold of the essential and imperative data that is connected with a specific association. These assaults are finished with the utilization of the system and the data security measures and are essentially executed to influence the classification, trustworthiness and accessibility of the data. Flooding, sniffing, dissent of administrations, message adjustment, media modification, listening stealthily and so forth are various such assaults that incur significant damage on the data security over VOIP. The countermeasures to these assaults are additionally grown at the same time to think of the system to moderate and control the effect of these assaults on the data. These measures are created on the premise of the assault and data classification. Issues that were not addressed and its Impact The research on the topic has been done well and the research questions have also been answered accurately. There could have been a little more explanation on the services and the procedure of the operations that are covered under Skype and the various VOIP applications that are present. These would have provided a better understanding of the topic and would have allowed the reader to be engaged in a better manner. Skype is the application that is used by a huge number of users and the functioning details of its services would have added to the knowledge and clarity of the reader about the topic. Lessons Learned There are a number of security and privacy issues that are present with VOIP and Skype. However, the same can be prevented by making use of the measures to avoid and prevent the same. There are various hostile to forswearing of administration measures that can be adjusted by the associations to stay safe from such assaults. The groups can make utilization of constraining of SYN rate or entrance separating also to stay away from the forswearing in the administration and keep up the accessibility of the data and correspondence at all times. There are also many stronger measures associated with the authentication methods such as use of multi layer authentication also know as two steps or three step authentications. Networks need to be monitored on a regular and constant basis by using measures such as network scans, network monitoring, intrusion detection and prevention. Encryption is a powerful technique that will stay significant even if the attacker succeeds in acquiring information from the communication channel as the attacker will not be able to break in to the encrypted information. The same will be of no use in this case. There are a number of legal and regulatory measures that can be adopted to prevent these attacks. A strong legal architecture will automatically minimize the rate and frequency of such attacks (Kulkarni, 2016). The first and foremost measures must never be ignored such as physical security, anti-viruses, installation of firewalls and likewise (Hung, 2016). Security reviews and audits must be a typical movement in the associations to have a check of the security systems that are taken after furthermore to comprehend the regions of change. VOIP and Skype are not dependent upon a particular device or an operating system to be accessed and can be used on desktop as well as mobile devices. These operating systems must be updated on a regular basis to make sure that the risks that are introduced specific to a particular operating system or to a particular version are prevented. It is also necessary to secure the wireless networks over which these applications and services are accessed. It is because these networks act as the prime source of the entry point for the attacker. Conclusion VOIP and Skype are the measures that provide the users an ability to interact easily with each other and perform other activities as well such as transfer of files from one system to another over the Internet. These mediums allow communications to take place in a cost effective manner and with non-stop availability and accessibility as well. However, there are a number of security and privacy issues that are associated with VOIP and Skype in the form of confidentiality threats, integrity threats and availability threats. These can be controlled and treats with the aid of a number of countermeasures that are now made available for the home as well as the business users. References Fontanini, P. (2016). VoIP Security. Brage.bibsys.no. Retrieved 11 September 2016, from https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/143809/Fontanini_VOIP_Security.pdf?sequence=1 Hung, P. (2016). Through the looking glass: Security issues in VOIP applications. Retrieved 11 September 2016, from https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.84.7089rep=rep1type=pdf Kulkarni, S. (2016). VoIP Cell Phones : Security concerns and Countermeasures. Retrieved 11 September 2016, from https://www.ijser.org/researchpaper%5CVoIP-Cell-Phones-Security-concerns-and-Countermeasures.pdf Lazzez, A. (2016). VoIP Technology: Security Issues Analysis. Retrieved 11 September 2016, from https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1312/1312.2225.pdf Obidinnu, J. Ibor, A. (2016). A survey of Attacks on VoIP networks and Countermeasures. Ajol.info. Retrieved 11 September 2016, from https://www.ajol.info/index.php/wajiar/article/viewFile/128074/117625 Park, P. (2016). Threats Against Confidentiality VoIP Threat Taxonomy. Ciscopress.com. Retrieved 11 September 2016, from https://www.ciscopress.com/articles/article.asp?p=1245881seqNum=2 Shaidani, S. (2016). Attacks and Defenses Against Voice over IP (VoIP). Retrieved 11 September 2016, from https://www.cs.tufts.edu/comp/116/archive/fall2015/sshaidani.pdf Sonkar, S. (2016). A Review Paper: Security on Voice over Internet Protocol from Spoofing attacks. Retrieved 11 September 2016, from https://www.ijarcce.com/upload/may/A%20Review%20Paper%20Security%20on%20Voice%20over%20Internet%20Protocol%20from%20Spoofing%20attacks.pdf Vaishnav, C. (2016). Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP): The Dynamics of Technology and Regulation. Retrieved 11 September 2016, from https://web.mit.edu/chintanv/www/Publications/MIT_TPP_Thesis_Chintan_Vaishnav_Final.pdf Xin, J. (2016). Security Issues and countermeasure for VoIP. Sans.org. Retrieved 11 September 2016, from https://www.sans.org/reading-room/whitepapers/voip/security-issues-countermeasure-voip-1701